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IB DP: Digital Society: Content

3.1 Data 

There are many types, uses and ways of representing data. Big data and data analytics involve extracting and processing useful information in ways that are often impossible for humans. There are significant opportunities and dilemmas associated with data in digital society.

  • 3.1A Data as distinct from information, knowledge and wisdom ~ Data, information, knowledge and wisdom (DIKW) pyramid

  • 3.1B Types of data ~ (a) Quantitative and qualitative, (b) Cultural, financial, geographical, medical, meteorological, transport, scientific, statistical and (c) Metadata

  • 3.1C Uses of data ~ (a) Identify trends, patterns, connections and relationships between different items and (b) Collect and organize measurable facts about people and communities

  • 3.1D Data life cycle ~ Create/collect/extract, store, process, analyse, access, preserve, reuse

  • 3.1E Ways to collect and organize data ~ (a) Primary and secondary data collection, (b) Databases organize and structure collections of data so that they are accessible, manageable and capable of being updated and (c) Data classifications and relationships

  • 3.1F Ways of representing data ~ Charts, tables, reports, infographics, visualizations

  • 3.1G Data security ~ (a)  Encryption, data masking, data erasure and (b) Blockchain

  • 3.1H Characteristics and uses of big data and data analytics ~ (a) Characteristics: volume, variety, velocity, veracity and (b) Uses: Predictive analysis, modelling, understanding past, current and future human behaviour

  • 3.1I Data dilemmas ~ (a) Data bias, reliability and integrity (b) Control, ownership and access to data and (c) Data privacy, anonymity and surveillance, personally identifiable information

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3.2 Algorithms

Algorithms are defined sequential steps or instructions to solve a specific problem or perform a task. The effectiveness of an algorithm is often evaluated according to its efficiency. The use of algorithms poses significant opportunities and dilemmas in digital society.

  •  3.2A Characteristics of an algorithm ~ Unambiguous, finite, well-defined inputs and outputs, feasible

  • 3.2B Components of an algorithm ~ Instructions, variables, conditionals, loops

  • 3.2C Ways of representing algorithms ~ Natural language, flow chart, code, programming languages

  • 3.2D Uses of algorithms ~ (a) Sorting, searching, filtering, prioritizing, classifying, associating, counting, (b) Programming, software development and implementation, (c) Machine learning, neural networks and in the creation of other algorithms

  • 3.2E Algorithmic dilemmas ~ (a) Algorithmic bias and fairness, (b) Algorithmic accountability and transparency, black box algorithms and (c) Erosion and/or loss of human judgment

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3.3 Computers

 A computer is a machine that automatically executes sets of instructions to perform specific tasks. Computers have evolved over time and are increasingly ubiquitous in the everyday life of people and communities.

  • 3.3A Types of computers ~ Mainframe, server, personal computer, tablet, smart/ mobile device, wearable computers and devices

  • 3.3B Components of a computer ~ (a) Hardware: Motherboard, central processing unit, memory, storage, graphics and sound components, power supply, input and output devices, sensors (b) Interfaces: User interfaces, such as graphic and haptic and (c) Software: Operating system software, software applications, apps and malicious software

  • 3.3C Uses and forms of computer coding ~ Computer coding and programming uses specific languages and rules to communicate instructions to computers

  • 3.3D Evolution of computing ~ (a) Generations in computing, for example, first to fifth generations of computing, (b) Moore’s law (c) Emerging areas of computing, such as quantum computing

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3.4 Networks & the Internet

Networks connect computers, people and communities allowing data and information to be created, accessed and shared in a distributed manner. Networks and the internet are defining features of digital society that have evolved over time. Networks and the internet involve significant opportunities and dilemmas for life in digital society.

3.4A Types of computing networks:​

  • Local Area Network (LAN): A network that covers a small geographic area, typically within a single building or campus. Commonly used for connecting devices like computers, printers, and servers.

  • Wide Area Network (WAN): Spans a larger geographical area, often connecting LANs in different locations or cities. The internet itself can be considered a global WAN.

  • Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): Covers a city or a large campus. It's larger than a LAN but smaller than a WAN. MANs are often used by universities and businesses with multiple branches in a city.

  • Personal Area Network (PAN): A small, short-range network used for connecting personal devices like smartphones, tablets, and laptops. Bluetooth and Wi-Fi Direct are examples of PAN technologies.

  • Virtual Private Network (VPN): A secure network that allows remote users or branch offices to access a private network over a public network, usually the internet. VPNs are commonly used for secure remote access.

  • Intranet: A private network that uses internet technologies but is limited to an organization's internal use. It's used for sharing information, collaboration, and internal communication.

  • Extranet: Similar to an intranet but extends access to authorized external users, such as customers, suppliers, or partners. It's used for secure data sharing and collaboration beyond the organization.

  • Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Network: A decentralized network where each device (peer) can act as both a client and a server. P2P networks are often used for sharing files or resources directly between devices.

  • Client-Server Network: A network architecture where client devices request services or resources from centralized servers. This is the most common architecture for internet services.

  • Cloud Computing Network: Encompasses various types of networks used by cloud service providers to deliver computing resources and services over the internet. This includes data center networks and content delivery networks (CDNs).

  • Social Network: Online platforms that connect individuals or organizations for social interaction, information sharing, or professional networking. Examples include Facebook, LinkedIn, and Twitter.

3.4B Components of computing networks:

  • Client, server, modem, router, switch, hub, channels, network interface

  • Devices:

    • Computers: Including desktops, laptops, servers, and mobile devices.

    • Networking Hardware: Such as routers, switches, hubs, access points, and network interface cards (NICs).

    • Peripheral Devices: Such as printers, scanners, and storage devices.

  • Transmission Media:

    • Wired Media: Like Ethernet cables, fiber-optic cables, and coaxial cables.

    • Wireless Media: Including radio waves (Wi-Fi), microwaves, and infrared signals.

  • Network Protocols:

    • Communication Rules: Protocols define the rules and conventions for data exchange. Examples include TCP/IP, HTTP, and FTP.

  • Network Architecture:

    • Client-Server: Where clients request services from servers.

    • Peer-to-Peer (P2P): Where devices communicate directly with each other without a central server.

  • Network Services and Applications:

    • Email: Services like SMTP and POP3 for sending and receiving emails.

    • Web Browsing: Using HTTP to access websites.

    • File Sharing: Protocols like SMB or FTP for sharing files.

    • Remote Access: VPNs and remote desktop services for accessing networks from a distance.

  • Network Security:

    • Firewalls: Devices or software that control incoming and outgoing network traffic to protect against unauthorized access.

    • Encryption: Techniques like SSL/TLS to secure data transmission.

    • Authentication: Methods like usernames and passwords to verify users' identities.

  • Network Management:

    • Network Monitoring: Tools and software for tracking network performance, detecting issues, and optimizing resources.

    • Configuration Management: Tools to configure and manage network devices.
      Security Management: Implementing security policies, patch management, and intrusion detection.

  • Network Addressing:

    • IP Addresses: Unique numerical addresses assigned to devices on the network.

    • MAC Addresses: Unique hardware addresses for network interface cards.

  • Network Hardware and Infrastructure:

    • Routers: Devices that route data between different networks.

    • Switches: Devices that connect multiple devices within a local network.

    • Access Points: Used in wireless networks to provide connectivity to Wi-Fi devices.

    • Modems: Devices that modulate and demodulate digital data for transmission over analog communication lines.

    • Cabling: The physical cables and connectors used to connect devices.

  • Network Services:

    • DNS (Domain Name System): Translates domain names into IP addresses.

    • DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol): Automatically assigns IP addresses to devices on a network.

    • NAT (Network Address Translation): Maps private IP addresses to a public IP address for internet access.

  • Data Transmission:

    • Data Packets: Data is divided into packets for transmission.

    • Routing: Determining the best path for data to travel through the network.

    • Switching: Forwarding data packets to their destination within a local network.

  • Network Policies and Procedures:

    • Usage Policies: Guidelines for how the network should be used.

    • Disaster Recovery Plans: Procedures for network recovery in case of failures or disasters.

3.4C Characteristics of computing networks

  • Standards and protocols - Interoperability, domain names, addresses

  • Security - Identification, authentication, encryption, firewall, proxy server, virtual private network (VPN), security layers

  • Capacity - Bandwidth, data compression, net neutrality

  • Infrastructure - Internet backbone

  • Connectivity: Networks enable the connection of various devices, allowing them to communicate and share resources such as data, files, and devices like printers and scanners.

  • Communication: Networks facilitate data exchange between devices through various communication protocols, ensuring that information can be transmitted reliably and efficiently.

  • Reliability: Networks are designed to be reliable, with redundancy and fault tolerance mechanisms to minimize downtime and ensure continuous operation.

  • Security: Network security is crucial to protect data and prevent unauthorized access. Security measures include firewalls, encryption, authentication, and access control.

  • Bandwidth: Networks offer varying levels of bandwidth to support data transfer rates. High-speed networks are essential for applications like streaming media and large file transfers.

  • Latency: The delay in data transmission, known as latency, is a critical factor in networks, particularly for real-time applications like video conferencing and online gaming.

  • Protocols: Networks rely on communication protocols like TCP/IP, HTTP, and FTP to govern how data is formatted, transmitted, and received.

  • Interoperability: Networks often need to support a variety of devices and operating systems, requiring standards and protocols to ensure different components can work together seamlessly.

  • Wireless vs. Wired: Networks can be wired (e.g., Ethernet) or wireless (e.g., Wi-Fi or cellular), each with its own advantages and limitations.

  • Cloud Integration: Many modern networks integrate with cloud services, allowing organizations to leverage cloud computing resources and services for various applications and storage.

3.4D Computing network providers and services

  • Internet service provider

  • Services - Chat, texting, email, file sharing, VOIP, online messaging, hosting, video conferencing

3.4E The world wide web

  • As distinct from the internet

  • URL, HTTP, browser

  • The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C)

  • Hyperlinking: The web is built on the concept of hyperlinks, which are clickable text, images, or other elements that allow users to navigate from one web page or resource to another. Hyperlinks make it easy to connect and explore information.

  • Uniform Resource Locators (URLs): Web addresses are represented as URLs, which provide a standardized way to identify and access resources on the web. A URL typically includes the protocol (e.g., HTTP or HTTPS), domain name (e.g., www.example.com), and a specific path or resource identifier.

  • Multimedia Content: The web supports a wide range of multimedia content, including text, images, videos, audio, animations, and interactive applications. This multimedia richness allows for diverse and engaging online experiences.

  • Interactivity: Web pages can incorporate interactive elements, such as forms, buttons, and scripting languages like JavaScript, enabling users to interact with and manipulate content. This interactivity is fundamental to modern web applications.

  • Global Accessibility: The web is accessible to anyone with an internet connection, making it a global platform for sharing and accessing information. It transcends geographical boundaries, providing a universal medium for communication.

  • Search Engines: Search engines like Google, Bing, and Yahoo index and organize web content, making it easier for users to find information. They employ algorithms to rank search results based on relevance.

  • Browsers: Web browsers like Chrome, Firefox, Safari, and Edge provide a user-friendly interface for accessing and interacting with web content. They render web pages and execute scripts, ensuring compatibility and usability.

  • Web Standards: The web is governed by a set of open standards and protocols, including HTML (Hypertext Markup Language), CSS (Cascading Style Sheets), and HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol). These standards ensure consistency and interoperability across different platforms and devices.

  • User-Generated Content: Many websites allow users to create and contribute content, such as social media posts, comments, reviews, and forums. User-generated content fosters collaboration and community engagement.

  • E-commerce: The web has transformed commerce through e-commerce platforms, enabling online shopping, electronic payments, and digital transactions. Businesses can reach a global customer base via e-commerce websites.

  • Content Management Systems (CMS): CMS platforms like WordPress, Drupal, and Joomla simplify website creation and management, making it accessible to users without extensive technical knowledge.

  • Security and Privacy: Web security measures like SSL/TLS encryption, firewalls, and secure authentication protocols help protect sensitive data and user privacy. Privacy policies and regulations address data handling and user consent.

  • Mobile Compatibility: With the proliferation of mobile devices, websites are designed to be responsive and mobile-friendly, ensuring a seamless user experience on smartphones and tablets.

  • Web Standards and Accessibility: Web accessibility standards (e.g., WCAG) ensure that websites are usable by people with disabilities, emphasizing inclusive design and assistive technologies.

  • Web Development Frameworks and Libraries: Developers use frameworks and libraries (e.g., React, Angular, and Vue.js) to streamline web application development and enhance functionality.

  • Web APIs: Application Programming Interfaces (APIs) allow web applications to communicate and integrate with external services and data sources, enabling a wide range of applications and services.

3.4F Evolution of the internet and the web

  • Innovators and innovations in the early development of the internet and web

  • Rise of online social media platforms

  • Internet of things and ubiquitous networking

3.4G Internet dilemmas

  • Privacy, anonymity and surveillance, the right to be forgotten, spyware, identity theft

  • Cybercrime, hacking, viruses, spam, social engineering, ransomware, denial of service, dark web, trolling

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3.5 Media

Digital media are defined by the convergence of computing, communication and content. Digital media are created and distributed through multiple channels and platforms. Digital media are associated with significant opportunities and dilemmas in digital society.

  • 3.5A Types of digital media ~ (a) Text, images, audio, animations, video, web pages, (b) Gaming and e-sports, (c) Blogs, vlogs, podcasts, vodcasting and live streaming, hashtags, memes, wikis, streaming media, (d) User-generated content, and (e) Synthetic digital media, such as artificial intelligence (AI)-generated media and deepfakes

  • 3.5B Characteristics of digital media ~ Rapid sharing, efficient storage, interactive, linear and non-linear content, convergence (of media forms and layers)

  • 3.5C Immersive digital media ~ Augmented reality (AR), virtual reality (VR), mixed reality (MR) and X reality (XR) technologies

  • 3.5D Digital media dilemmas ~ (a) Addiction and other psychological concerns, (b) Impact on journalism, for example, fragmentation and consolidation in the media industry, (c) Media authenticity, sourcing and deepfakes, (c) Ownership, copyright, copyleft, Creative Commons, open source, remix culture, (d) Media obsolescence and digital preservation, and (e) Censorship, content filters, moral panics, decency standards, offensive speech, objectionable content

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3.6 Artificial Intelligence

Artificial intelligence (AI) involves agents, devices or systems that adapt to perform tasks (or appear to do so) that once required the cognitive and creative processes of human beings. There are several types of existing, emerging or proposed AI. These categories frequently overlap or are contested. AI has evolved over time and introduces significant opportunities and dilemmas in digital society.

  • 3.6A Types of AI

  • 3.6B Types and uses of machine learning

  • 3.6C Uses of artificial neural networks

  • 3.6D Evolution of AI

  • 3.6E AI dilemmas ~ (a) Fairness and bias in design and use, (b) Accountability in design and use, (c) Transparency in design and use, (d) Uneven and underdeveloped laws, regulations and governance and (e) Automation and displacement of humans in multiple contexts and roles

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3.7 Robots & Autonomous Technologies

Robots and autonomous technologies demonstrate a capacity to sense, think and/or act with some degree of independence. Robots and autonomous technologies have evolved over time and are increasingly ubiquitous, pervasive and woven into the everyday lives of people and communities. Robots and autonomous technologies introduce significant opportunities and dilemmas in digital society.

  • 3.7A Types of robots and autonomous technologies ~ (a) Robots: Industrial and productivity robots, service robots, social robots and (b) Autonomous technologies: Internet of things, autonomous vehicles, drones, virtual assistants

  • 3.7B Characteristics of robots and autonomous technologies ~ (a) Sensory inputs for spatial, environmental and operational awareness, (b) The ability to logically reason with inputs, often using machine vision and/or machine learning, (c) The ability to interact and move in physical environments, sometimes remotely and (d) The demonstration of some degree of autonomy

  • 3.7C Evolution of robots and autonomous technologies ~ (a) Early forms of robots and autonomous technology, (b) Robots in science fiction and philosophy, (c) Use in industry and manufacturing, (d) Expanding interactions with human users and (e) Machine consciousness, cognitive robotics and robot rights

  • 3.7D Robots and autonomous technology dilemmas ~ (a) Anthropomorphism and the uncanny valley, (b) Complexity of human and environmental interactions, (c) Uneven and underdeveloped laws, regulations and governance and (d) Displacement of humans in multiple contexts and roles

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